James Marshall looks at the evidence.

Resistance training (RT) takes many forms, including strength training, power training, plyometric training, muscular endurance and hypertrophy (increasing muscle size) work. Most of these forms, [...]]]>

Can lifting weights help middle distance runners run faster or further with no corresponding improvements in aerobic fitness?

James Marshall looks at the evidence.

Resistance training (RT) takes many forms, including strength training, power training, plyometric training, muscular endurance and hypertrophy (increasing muscle size) work. Most of these forms, except hypertrophy (see below) can aid middle distance running in some way:

• Strength training – enables runners to maintain form when running and be more efficient. Certain exercises are useful in helping prevent injuries;
• Power training – helps with change of speed and acceleration during races, and with changes in incline during cross-country courses;
• Plyometric training – helps improve running mechanics (if performed correctly) by improving the reactivity of ankle, foot and pelvic joints whilst running. This can lead to an overall increase in running efficiency and therefore less energy expenditure whilst running;
• Muscular endurance – where increased local muscular endurance can help with overall endurance by increasing the number and density of mitochondria in the muscles.

The tricky part, of course, is knowing how to balance all the different aspects, without detriment to running training and mechanics.
In terms of muscular coordination, running is an extremely complex activity so care has to be taken to enhance, rather than inhibit it. For example, just using large bounding activities will help use the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, but will inhibit the smaller foot and ankle muscles that are used to land and react when running. Conversely, wobble board exercises will use the smaller muscle groups, but don’t require enough strength in the main muscles to create real improvements in running economy. Specific exercises that enhance the running economy need to be introduced, but research studies have not always used such exercises.

How can you build strength?

Strength improvements and adaptations occur in three ways and generally in the following order(1):

1. Intra-muscular coordination – The motor units within each muscle group may not previously have been stimulated adequately. By training the movement patterns you want to optimise with adequate resistance, these motor units can be effectively recruited. By recruiting more motor units within each muscle, more work can be done. Frequent training also enhances the motor units’ ability to work in concert with each other and to be recruited simultaneously, rather than one after another.

2. Inter-muscular coordination – Frequent RT training will allow more efficient movement patterns because it will decrease the co-contraction of antagonists (opposing muscle groups) when the targeted muscle is required to work. It also develops greater coordination between the targeted and opposing muscles as they become more accustomed to working a certain movement pattern.

3. Hypertrophy – After an initial training period of around 12 weeks, the muscles may become bigger. This can happen in two ways: hyperplasia (an increase in the number of muscle fibres themselves) and myofibrillar hypertrophy (where the fibre size increases).

For runners, the first two adaptations are important because the correct exercises can enhance running economy and efficiency by allowing better inter-muscular and intra-muscular coordination. Too much hypertrophy on the other hand can be detrimental for two main reasons: firstly, an increase in limb mass will make the levers harder to ‘swing’ and will either slow the runner down, or will require more energy to maintain the same speed. Second, an increase in muscle mass is associated with a decrease in mitochondrial density, which will decrease aerobic efficiency at the cellular level.

What do experienced runners do?

Research on what experienced runners actually do  in terms of resistance training is actually quite limited. Anecdotally, it’s widely accepted that some form of RT will improve running performance in middle-distance running. But finding studies on experienced runners who have performed RT and then actually looking at what they have done in their RT programmes as well as their running training is problematic.

A review of such studies was conducted last year and the authors of this review found only five studies that met the necessary criteria deemed to be important for validity(2):

• Longer than six weeks in duration;
• Performance distance of 3km to marathon;
• Well trained runners who ran more than five days a week or covered more than 30 miles a week;

Studies that excluded pre-pubertal children or the elderly.

It’s difficult to compare studies with different methods of design, subject numbers and backgrounds and the varying programmes that were implemented. However, in these studies, the average improvement of running economy was 4.6%, and the two studies that measured running performance showed an average 2.9% improvement at both 3km and 5km distance.

There appeared to be no one particular method of RT favoured and some of the programme designs used training methods more appropriate to bodybuilders than runners! For example, one of the studies used heavy weight training in the gym with the following exercises: hamstring curls, leg press, seated press, parallel squat, leg extensions and heel raises. Of these, only two of the exercises were weight bearing, and only one was a single leg exercise – the hamstring curl. Even then, the hamstring doesn’t function in the same manner when running (see below), so it’s hard to see how this type of training transfers effectively to runners.

Two of the other studies used circuit training as well as plyometric exercises. Here the plyometric exercises used single- and double-leg jumps, bounds and hops, which would have a transfer effect to running patterns. The circuit training may have improved running by increasing local muscular endurance, but circuit training has also recently been shown to improve sprint agility and anaerobic performance in non-runners, although it depends on the exercises that are done in the circuit(3).

The authors of the review concluded that RT does appear to be effective in influencing running economy and performance; however the actual methods used were very varied, so drawing conclusions from them would be very tenuous.

The importance of biarticular muscles

Biarticular muscles pass over more than one joint. These biarticular muscles have more complicated movement patterns than monoarticular muscles (that pass over only one joint) such as the gluteal muscles of the buttocks. They also use elastic strength rather than pure contractile strength in a great deal of the movement(4,5).

There are three main biarticular muscles in the lower limbs which are useful for running: the rectus femoris (frontal thigh), which passes over the front of the knee and hip; the hamstrings, which pass over the back of the knee and hip; and the gastrocnemius (calf), which passes over the ankle and knee. Biarticular muscles use energy efficiently because the counteractive force from one joint is released and used by the other joint. For example, when the hamstring contracts, knee flexion occurs, energy transfer is possible from the knee to the hip, which then helps extend the hip. This occurs very quickly and is difficult to measure – its importance has only recently started to be understood(1).

This combination of joint movements and energy transfer is important to understand when designing exercises to improve efficiency. If a gluteal muscle is contracted concentrically, the hip will extend. Training a gluteal muscle through strength training in almost any form will have a strong transfer to its use within sport, because it is a simple movement. However, the hamstrings are more difficult to train because of their biarticluar nature. The length of the muscle can be changed by either tilting the pelvis forward or back or by extending or flexing the knee. The nature of the contraction also changes depending on whether the hip or knee is fixed and which part of the running stance is being considered. So, the type of exercise to improve the hamstring function needs to be carefully considered. Simple hamstring curls should be avoided because that’s not how this muscle works during running.

What works for runners?

Trying to draw conclusions from research apart from ‘elite middle distance runners can benefit from RT’ is difficult. So perhaps we should look at how the body works best, and then create an exercise programme around that, rather than just doing gym exercises. This may include the following:

• Some form of plyometric activity to work ankle reactivity;
• Single leg strengthening exercises to improve balance and control in the gluteal area and the knee joint;
• Hamstring exercises that develop eccentric strength;

Some exercises that help develop the core complex around the pelvis that assists in minimising upper body rotation during running.

That exact choice will depend on the individual runner; for example, if a runner has had an injury, or is severely deconditioned then there is a place for general strengthening work in the form of circuit training to establish a sound platform. Jumping too quickly into specific work without an underlying strength base could lead to injury. If a runner has suffered a lower limb injury, the level of coordination will be decreased, so exercises need to be included that re-establish previous motor patterns. Examples of exercises that may be useful can be found below:

Ankle reactivity exercises

All the drills below can improve the foot and ankle’s reactivity to changing ground surfaces.

Ankle bounces: The concept behind this exercise to use your calves to propel you off the floor, with as little knee movement as possible. On two feet and keeping the legs almost straight, quickly pull up the toes and jump up off the floor. As you land quickly pull up your toes again and repeat.

Hopping on one leg: In this exercise, you should aim to cover a distance of 15m. The raised foot is used to touch the floor at every hop but with tension held in the foot. Variations on this exercise include:

• Making the raised leg perform a high knee action so it has to move rapidly up and down in between hops;
• Moving the raised leg up and down, but not allowing it to quite touch the floor;
• The raised leg alternately performs a high knee action with the foot touching the floor, followed by a high knee action where the foot doesn’t touch the floor.

NB: In all these exercises it is important to keep some tension in the foot – that means keeping it in a neutral position, not pointed up or down. It is also important to minimise the amount of contact time between the foot and the ground.

Leg and core exercises

Single leg strengthening exercises

Split squat: Carrying any weighted implement (barbell, dumbbells, sandbag), stand with one foot in front of the other, feet about shoulder width apart. Keep the weight and your shoulders above the hips and bend both knees, to lower the hips. Return to the start position.

One leg hip hitch: Stand with weight on shoulders, one foot on floor, the other resting on a small bench. Lift the foot off the bench and bring the knee up by lifting the hip, the stance leg should be fully extended through hip, knee and ankle and weight should be through the ball of the foot. Hold this position for one second and then return to the start.

A variation to the above is as follows: when the foot comes off the bench,  use it to tap the floor by the stance leg then as it returns to the bench, make the stance leg drive forcefully and quickly up until it is fully extended.

Step-ups: With weight on shoulders, stand in front of a small bench or platform that is lower than knee height. As you step up on to the bench with the right leg, drive up quickly with the left leg so it is fully extended. As you transfer weight onto the right leg, bring the left knee quickly forward and up until it is bent at 90 degrees. You are now stood on the bench on your right foot with the left leg bent and raised in front of your body. By varying the weight used, you can vary the speed of movement and change the emphasis of the exercise. Ensure that your head is upright and your back extended throughout.

Hamstring emphasis exercise

Split squat with forward bend: Start as above, but this time, when the thighs are nearly parallel to the ground, bend forward until the weight and shoulders are over the front knee. The weight shouldn’t be so heavy that you are unable to move the shoulders to the front.

Variation: stand with your back to a wall, feet about 50cm away from of the wall, holding a light weight on shoulders. Place one foot on wall behind you and bend forward, keeping your chest out and back extended. Do small bouncing movements under control. Keep the back muscles tense and the back straight throughout.

Core complex exercises

Slow sit up: Lie on the floor with hands behind head, knees bent and feet on floor. Sit up to about 45 degrees and then extend your back by sticking your chest out and pull elbows backwards. As you return to the floor, the back flexes and your elbows return to the front.
Variations on the these core exercises include the following:

• After sitting up, extend and raise both arms backwards  above and behind your head;
• After sitting up and extending your chest, rotate your upper body and point one elbow in front and the other behind.

Medicine ball slams: Hold a medicine ball above your head and reach up as high as you can. Slam it into the ground, catch it and repeat as rapidly as possible.

With all of the above exercises, ensure that you have no existing injuries before starting them. If in doubt on the weight to use, try a very light weight and progress from there. Aim to do five high quality repetitions of each, then rest, then repeat for up to four more sets. The exception is the medicine ball slams where a large number (up to 100) can be performed as a conditioning tool.

Conclusion

Research and anecdotal evidence shows that some form of resistance training is likely to improve your performance as a middle distance runner. However, the quality of the programmes within the research studies and the lack of suitable studies mean that conclusions are difficult to draw as to exactly what works best. However, once an initial strength base has been established, working on specific exercises twice a week for 20-30 minutes may well help improve running economy. During the off-season, this could be increased to three times a week for 45 minutes.

James Marshall MSc, CSCS, ACSM/HFI, runs Excelsior, a sports training company

References

1. F. Bosch & R. Klomp, Running: Biomechanics
and Exercise Physiology Applied in Practice.
Netherlands: Elsevier.
(2007)
2. JSCR, 22(6) p 2036-
2044, (2008)
3. JSCR, 23 (6) 1803-
1810, (2009)
4. Brain Research 751 p 239-246 (1997)
5. Journal of Biomechanics
27 (1) p25-34 (1994)

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Tags: ironman training, tri bike

To optimise [...]]]> Swimming is my second weakest discipline, and whilst undoubtedly technique and streamlined efficiency (low drag) in the water is paramount, there is also a lot to be gained by improving relevant muscular strength and endurance. Mike

Swimmers need to follow a programme of exercises that replicate their actions in the water as closely as possible.

To optimise strength and power, competitive swimmers need to supplement their pool training with land training in the gym. For best effect, swimmers need to follow a programme of exercises that replicate their actions in the water as closely as possible.

Strength and conditioning experts around the world all agree that, for time spent in the gym to have a positive impact on your sports performance, you must ensure the exercises you perform – and the way you perform them – are related to your sporting movements in competition. For example, Barbell Squats involve ankle, knee and hip extensions in a vertical plane which are directly related to the mechanics of a vertical jump; thus the squat is a useful exercise for developing jump performance.

If we perform a basic analysis of the mechanics of the front crawl stroke, the main actions that produce forward propulsion through the water are:

l. the ‘arm pull down’ through the water, which propels the swimmer forward and

2. the ‘leg kick’, which alternates hip flexion and extension of the legs.

In addition, competitive swimming involves:

The ‘dive start and push off turn’, which involves dynamic ankle, knee and hip extension.

When designing your strength programme, you should focus mainly on exercises related to these movements. Other exercises may use the same muscles as those involved in swimming, but only exercises which use the right muscles in a related mechanical movement will provide optimum training benefit.

A limitation of land training with weights for swimming is that the type of resistance you encounter when moving in the water is different from the resistance occurring when you move a weight through the air. In the water, the faster you pull or kick the greater the resistance applied back by the water; on land, a given weight requires a constant force to move it, regardless of the speed of movement.

Hydraulic-type resistance equipment that mimics aquatic resistance is expensive and not widely available. The best compromise when using regular equipment is to try to mimic the speed and nature of the swimming stroke. To this end, you should aim to perform the strength exercises with a smooth and constant force and select weights which allow the movement to be performed at a swimming-related speed. For example, the leg-kicking motion during front crawl is quite fast, so hip flexion and extension exercises which can be performed at a good speed would be best.

The following exercises are related to the mechanics of the front crawl stroke. For each component, the relevant exercises are described and their mechanical relationship to the stroke explained.

Arm pull down exercises

1. Cable rotational front and back pulls

Front pull. This is the mechanical equivalent to the pulling-through-the-water action in front crawl, as the hand comes diagonally across the body as it pulls down. For this exercise you need a high pulley machine with a simple handle grip.
Kneel down on one knee to the side of the machine. Take the hand nearest the pulley and grasp the handle with the hand high and slightly out to your side. Before you start the exercise make sure your back is straight, your shoulders are wide and your chin is tucked in. Pull the handle down and lower your arm across your body in a rotational movement until your hand is next to the opposite hip. Smoothly return the bar to the start position and continue, performing sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength or 12-15 for strength endurance.

Try to keep your posture solid throughout the movement. Maintain a slight bend in the elbow as you pull, but focus your effort on the shoulder muscles only.

Rear pull. This exercise involves the opposite movement to the front pull and is useful for promoting a balanced strength about the shoulder joint. Specifically, the front pull trains the internal rotator cuff muscles and the rear pull trains the external muscles. To avoid shoulder injuries a balanced rotator cuff strength is important. For this exercise you need a low pulley machine with the simple handle grip.

Stand to the side of the machine and grasp the handle with the opposite hand. Make sure your back is straight, your shoulders wide and your chin tucked in. Start with your hand by the inside hip and fix a slight bend in the elbow. Pull the handle up and away from your body, rotating the arm up and out. Finish with the handle high and out to the side, with the palm of the hand facing forwards. Smoothly return the handle back and across to the opposite hip and continue. Again go for sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength or 12-15 for strength endurance.

Keeping your posture solid during this exercise is quite difficult, as it is tempting to use your trunk muscles to help the rotation movement. However, you can train your core stability skills by keeping your navel pulled into your spine and relaxing your upper body so there are no additional movements apart from the arm raise and rotation.

In combination, the front and rear diagonal pull train almost every muscle in the shoulder joint and shoulder girdle. This makes them very useful exercises for any sport.

2. Medicine ball single arm overhead throw

This exercise develops the power of the latissimus and pectoral muscles in a functional manner for swimmers, involving a movement similar to the front crawl stroke. The aim of the throw is to improve the rate of force development in the shoulder by accelerating the arm hard to throw the ball. For this exercise you need a partner and 2-4kg ball. The small rubber ones are best as they can be held in one hand.

Because the ball is quite heavy for one hand you will not be able to throw it far or move the arm very fast. This makes it ideal for swimming as the pull stroke is not that fast.The training effect comes from your attempts to accelerate the arm movement as fast as you can, thereby improving the power of the pull.

Lie on your back on the floor, with knees bent slightly so your lower back is comfortable. Grasp the ball in one hand with your arm up and behind your head, slightly bent at the elbow. Vigorously pull the arm up and down across your body, throwing the ball over the opposite knee. Get your partner to return the ball, and perform sets of 8-12 repetitions with each arm in turn.

Do not lift your head or pull up from the stomach as you throw. Focus on producing the power from the shoulder and pulling across the body as you do in front crawl.

3. Swiss ball body pulls

This is a ‘closed kinetic chain’ movement, where the moving limbs remain in contact with a fixed object – in this case the hands with the floor. Such movements are thought to be particularly functional for sports performance, so offering greater training benefits.

This exercise is performed in a horizontal prone position, with the arms pulling down under the body, matching the position and action of a swimmer in the pool.

Position yourself face down, with your lower legs on the Swiss ball and your hands on the floor supporting your weight, body parallel to the floor. This is the equivalent of a press-up position with your feet up. Slowly roll the ball up your legs while your arms extend out in front of you until you achieve a stretched position, with a straight line through your arms, shoulders, back, hips and legs. At this point your body will make a shallow angle with the floor and the ball will be positioned on your thighs. Then, keeping this perfect alignment of your body, push down through your hands into the floor and pull yourself back to the press-up position. The ball should roll back down your legs as you do this. Perform sets of 8-12 repetitions.

The difficult part of the exercise is the pull back up. At this point you must use your stomach muscles to support your spine and focus on using a strong pull of the shoulder muscles to raise your body back to the parallel position. This exercise is not easy, but it is very beneficial for many sports, helping to develop core and shoulder strength.

Leg kick exercises: Hip extension and flexion kick

These exercises mimic the upwards and downwards phases of the swimmer’s kick action, where the glutes and hamstrings extend and the hip flexors flex the leg at the hip. For these exercises you need a low pulley machine with an ankle strap attachment. Each leg is worked independently to increase the specificity for swimming, and the weights used should be relatively light so you can kick with good speed, as in the pool.

Hip extension. Stand facing the low pulley machine, with the ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the floor, taking up the slack of the cable, and place your balance solidly on the other leg. Hold onto the machine’s frame with your hands to stabilise your upper body and check that your back is straight, with shoulders relaxed.

Pull the cable back dynamically by extending the leg backwards until you feel you need to lean forwards, then bring it back in a controlled manner to the start position, retaining good posture. Continue pulling the leg back, focusing on the gluteals and hamstrings to kick back powerfully.

Hip flexion. Stand with your back to the low pulley machine, with the ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the floor, taking up the slack of the cable, and place your balance solidly on the other leg. Use a stick to support yourself, and check that your back is straight with your shoulders relaxed.

Pull the cable dynamically by kicking the leg forwards. Pull the weight, using your hip flexor muscles at the top and front of the thigh, until your leg reaches an angle of about 30û or you start to lean back. Smoothly return your leg to the start position, retaining good posture, and continue.

Perform sets of 10 reps at a fast speed and build up to sets of 20 or 30 for power endurance of this movement.

‘Dive start and push-off turn’ exercise: Barbell squat jumps

This exercise involves dynamic extension of the ankle, knee and hip joints and trains the calf, quadriceps and gluteal muscles to improve vertical jump performance. The vertical jump is mechanically related to the dive start and push-off turns involved in swimming: with the dive or turn, the ankle, knee and hip extension propels you forwards in the horizontal plane, while with the jump the leg extension propels you upwards in the vertical plane. Essentially, it’s the same movement rotated by 90û!

The point of using a barbell to add weight to the squat is to help you to generate peak power. If you perform the jump squat with body weight only, the jump will be very fast and high. With the addition of a moderate weight (about 30-40% of the 1 repetition max weight for the squat exercise), the jump will not be as high or fast, but the muscular power required to leave the ground will be maximal. This is based on the knowledge that peak power is achieved when the force used is about one third of the maximum force for that movement. Again, your goal is to attempt to achieve the fastest extension of the legs to maximise power production and training benefit. If you use 30-40% of 1 RM weight, I recommend 3-5 sets of 5 repetitions.

Stand with the barbell across the back of your shoulders. Squat down, bending at the hips and knee, making sure the weight goes down through the back half of your foot. When you reach the half squat position, drive up dynamically, rapidly extending your legs so that you leave the floor briefly. Absorb the landing with soft knees, then go smoothly into the squat again. Continue for 5 repetitions.

The bottom line:

Strength and power training is essential for Elite swimming performance.

To optimise the benefit of land-based training, you must select exercises with mechanical relevance to the swimming action, particularly those movements which propel the swimmer through the water, such as the arm pull and leg kick.

As the resistance in the water is different from the resistance provided by weight equipment on land, unless you have special hydraulic equipment, you must also focus on mimicking the speed and smooth movement of the swimming stroke when performing land-based exercises.

Various exercises for the arm pull, leg kick, dive and turn movements are suggested, all with a good functional relationship to the swimming action. While this is not a definitive or exhaustive selection of exercises, especially as it focuses solely on front crawl, it involves highly specific swimming movements in terms of mechanics, positions and speed. When you design strength programmes for swimming performance or any other sport, be sure to think about each exercise in terms of its relevance to performance.

Raphael Brandon

This article was taken from the Peak Performance newsletter, the number one source of sports science, training and research. Click here to access these articles as soon as they are released to maximise your performance

Tags: tri bike, sprint triathlon