In an earlier column, I encouraged you to try some fast 25s to boost your swimming speed. People have been trying the workouts and, lo and behold, they are swimming faster. Excellent!

Now that you’ve mastered some of the shorter workouts, let’s bump the distance up some. Below [...]]]> By Gale Bernhardt
For Active.com

In an earlier column, I encouraged you to try some fast 25s to boost your swimming speed. People have been trying the workouts and, lo and behold, they are swimming faster. Excellent!

Now that you’ve mastered some of the shorter workouts, let’s bump the distance up some. Below are new workouts for you to try:

Workout No. 1

Complete a mixed warm-up totaling 500 to 1,000 yards/meters.

After the warm-up, go through the following set two or three times:

• 2 x 25 — Build speed throughout each 25
• 2 x 25 — Swim half the distance as fast as you can, it doesn’t matter if it is first half or last half. Swim the “other half” easy.
• 1 x 50 — All-out fast
• 1 x 50 — Easy

Make your swim interval something that gives you 5 to 10 seconds rest on the 25s, about 20 seconds of rest on the 50-all-out-fast and about 90 seconds on the 50 easy.

After the speedy set, head into your main set. The main set can include swims in the 100 to 300 range.

Workout No. 2

Complete a mixed warm-up totaling 500 to 1,000.

After the warm-up, go through the following set two to four times:

• 4 x 25 — Build speed throughout each 25 (Make the swim interval something that gives you about 10 seconds of rest.)
• 1 x 50 — All-out fast (Make the swim interval something that gives you about 20 seconds of rest.)
• 1 x 25 — Easy (Make the swim interval something that gives you 15 to 20 seconds of rest.)
• 1 x 25 — All-out fast (Make the swim interval something that gives you about 10 seconds of rest.)

After the speedy set, head into your main set. The main set can include swims in the 100 to 300 range.

Optional Main Set

An optional main set to include after Workout No. 1 or 2 follows:

• 3 x 100 on a swim interval that gives you 10 to 15 seconds of rest. Swim all of these at a steady pace.
• 3 x 100 on a swim interval that gives you 15 to 20 seconds rest. Negative-split each 100.
• 3 x 100 on a swim interval that gives you 20 to 30 seconds rest. Swim these so that each 100 is faster than the previous one. The last one is a fast one.

If you have the time and fitness, go through the set of 100s twice.

Workout No. 3

Complete a mixed warm-up totaling 500 to 1,000.

After the warm-up, do 4 x 25 building speed throughout each 25 (Make the swim interval something that gives you about 10 seconds of rest.)

Take one minute of rest, then do:

• 6 x 50 — All-out fast. No holding back. Expect the fastest one to be the second or third one. It’s okay if speed fades some, just swim fast. Make the swim interval something that gives you 80 to 100 seconds of rest between each 50 swim.

After the speedy set, head into your main set. Keep it primarily aerobic. If you swim really, really fast (like the instructions tell you to do) you won’t have much high-end speed for the rest of the workout.

The biggest mistake you can make in the workouts above is to try to be a Sammie Save-up. Of course there are times when you should be holding some speed in reserve so you can negative-split a swim; but not in these workouts. Cut loose and see how fast you can go.

How much did you improve? If you’ve tried these workouts, head to USAT’s Facebook page and tell us about it!

Gale Bernhardt was the 2003 USA Triathlon Pan American Games and 2004 USA Triathlon Olympic coach for both the men’s and women’s teams. Her first Olympic experience was as a personal cycling coach at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Thousands of athletes have had successful training and racing experiences using Gale’s pre-built, easy-to-follow training plans. For more information, click here. Let Gale and Active Trainer help you succeed.

This article originally appeared on Active.com—your source for event information, training plans, expert advice, and everything you need to connect with the sport you love.

Tags: half ironman, olympic triathlon

I completely agree that doing form drills to practice good swimming technique is critical to the process of becoming a faster swimmer. That written, you cannot expect that slow and purposeful drills will increase your sustained swimming speed if you never swim fast.

Certainly, a beginning swimmer [...]]]> By Gale Bernhardt
For Active.com

I completely agree that doing form drills to practice good swimming technique is critical to the process of becoming a faster swimmer. That written, you cannot expect that slow and purposeful drills will increase your sustained swimming speed if you never swim fast.

Certainly, a beginning swimmer can make significant gains in speed because they are starting with a baseline limited to no fitness and skills; but after a few weeks, they will reach a speed plateau. They cannot improve their average speed for long swims. Even intermediate and advanced distance swimmers can hit a speed ceiling.

These more advanced swimmers can often be found churning out set after set of repeat 100s to 500s with very short rest intervals. These swimmers also like long and steady open water swims. Managing a certain level of discomfort for a long period makes them feel like they accomplished something in the workout.

But, what if you are stuck at your current speed and can’t seem to get faster?

One answer seems obvious: You need to swim faster in order to get faster. Swimming fast and experiencing a load of lactate is not a feeling long-distance swimmers or triathletes enjoy. They would rather swim 1,000 or 2,000 steady than swim six all-out, fast 50s—even if there is generous rest between each 50.

Speed It Up

Let’s save the fast 50 workouts for another column. For this column, I’ll have you sneak up on some speed with shorter efforts. These workouts come from Masters swim coach Scott Allen. He is a former USA Swimming staff member and helped Susan Von der Lippe qualify for the Olympic trials this year. As well as Olympians, he has coached many triathletes and age-group swimmers of all ages.

He believes, and I agree with him, that you need to swim fast early in the workout, before you have any accumulated fatigue. You need to begin with short distances and then build the distance of fast swimming over time, in a progression.

To get you started on the path to faster swimming, try to do one of the sets outlined in this column after your warm-up swim, but prior to the main set.

For all the sets, the 25s are on a swim interval that gives you around 15 seconds rest. The 50s and 100s are done on an interval that gives you 20 to 30 seconds rest. If you swim in a long course pool, get creative about modifying the workout to achieve the goals in the set.

Option 1
Repeat the following set two to three times:
2 x 25  Build speed throughout the 25
2 x 25  Swim half the distance as fast as you can, it doesn’t matter if it is first half or last half. Swim the other half easy.
1 x 25 All-out fast
1 x 50 Very relaxed and easy

Option 2
Repeat the following set two or three times:
1 x 25  Steady swimming
1 x 25  Build speed throughout the 25
1 x 25  Swim half the distance fast
1 x 25  Easy

Option 3
Repeat the following set two times. Wear fins for the entire set:
2 x 100  Do 25 kick, 25 swim, 25 kick, 25 swim
2 x 25  Kick fast
2 x 25 Swim fast—really fast
1 x 50 easy

Include one of these fast swimming segments between your warm-up and main set at least once, and preferably twice, per week for the next six to eight weeks. On your other swim days you can include form drills between the warm-up and the main set.

At the end of your experiment, answer this: did it gradually get easier to swim fast on the short sets? Were you able to swim faster in some of your longer sets too? Did you bump your overall speed? Think about your experience, and how it can impact your swim in future events.

Gale Bernhardt was the 2003 USA Triathlon Pan American Games and 2004 USA Triathlon Olympic coach for both the men’s and women’s teams. Her first Olympic experience was as a personal cycling coach at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Thousands of athletes have had successful training and racing experiences using Gale’s pre-built, easy-to-follow training plans. For more information, click here. Let Gale and Active Trainer help you succeed.

This article originally appeared on Active.com—your source for event information, training plans, expert advice, and everything you need to connect with the sport you love.

Tags: triathlon gear, triathlon results

James Marshall looks at the evidence.

Resistance training (RT) takes many forms, including strength training, power training, plyometric training, muscular endurance and hypertrophy (increasing muscle size) work. Most of these forms, [...]]]>

Can lifting weights help middle distance runners run faster or further with no corresponding improvements in aerobic fitness?

James Marshall looks at the evidence.

Resistance training (RT) takes many forms, including strength training, power training, plyometric training, muscular endurance and hypertrophy (increasing muscle size) work. Most of these forms, except hypertrophy (see below) can aid middle distance running in some way:

• Strength training – enables runners to maintain form when running and be more efficient. Certain exercises are useful in helping prevent injuries;
• Power training – helps with change of speed and acceleration during races, and with changes in incline during cross-country courses;
• Plyometric training – helps improve running mechanics (if performed correctly) by improving the reactivity of ankle, foot and pelvic joints whilst running. This can lead to an overall increase in running efficiency and therefore less energy expenditure whilst running;
• Muscular endurance – where increased local muscular endurance can help with overall endurance by increasing the number and density of mitochondria in the muscles.

The tricky part, of course, is knowing how to balance all the different aspects, without detriment to running training and mechanics.
In terms of muscular coordination, running is an extremely complex activity so care has to be taken to enhance, rather than inhibit it. For example, just using large bounding activities will help use the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, but will inhibit the smaller foot and ankle muscles that are used to land and react when running. Conversely, wobble board exercises will use the smaller muscle groups, but don’t require enough strength in the main muscles to create real improvements in running economy. Specific exercises that enhance the running economy need to be introduced, but research studies have not always used such exercises.

How can you build strength?

Strength improvements and adaptations occur in three ways and generally in the following order(1):

1. Intra-muscular coordination – The motor units within each muscle group may not previously have been stimulated adequately. By training the movement patterns you want to optimise with adequate resistance, these motor units can be effectively recruited. By recruiting more motor units within each muscle, more work can be done. Frequent training also enhances the motor units’ ability to work in concert with each other and to be recruited simultaneously, rather than one after another.

2. Inter-muscular coordination – Frequent RT training will allow more efficient movement patterns because it will decrease the co-contraction of antagonists (opposing muscle groups) when the targeted muscle is required to work. It also develops greater coordination between the targeted and opposing muscles as they become more accustomed to working a certain movement pattern.

3. Hypertrophy – After an initial training period of around 12 weeks, the muscles may become bigger. This can happen in two ways: hyperplasia (an increase in the number of muscle fibres themselves) and myofibrillar hypertrophy (where the fibre size increases).

For runners, the first two adaptations are important because the correct exercises can enhance running economy and efficiency by allowing better inter-muscular and intra-muscular coordination. Too much hypertrophy on the other hand can be detrimental for two main reasons: firstly, an increase in limb mass will make the levers harder to ‘swing’ and will either slow the runner down, or will require more energy to maintain the same speed. Second, an increase in muscle mass is associated with a decrease in mitochondrial density, which will decrease aerobic efficiency at the cellular level.

What do experienced runners do?

Research on what experienced runners actually do  in terms of resistance training is actually quite limited. Anecdotally, it’s widely accepted that some form of RT will improve running performance in middle-distance running. But finding studies on experienced runners who have performed RT and then actually looking at what they have done in their RT programmes as well as their running training is problematic.

A review of such studies was conducted last year and the authors of this review found only five studies that met the necessary criteria deemed to be important for validity(2):

• Longer than six weeks in duration;
• Performance distance of 3km to marathon;
• Well trained runners who ran more than five days a week or covered more than 30 miles a week;

Studies that excluded pre-pubertal children or the elderly.

It’s difficult to compare studies with different methods of design, subject numbers and backgrounds and the varying programmes that were implemented. However, in these studies, the average improvement of running economy was 4.6%, and the two studies that measured running performance showed an average 2.9% improvement at both 3km and 5km distance.

There appeared to be no one particular method of RT favoured and some of the programme designs used training methods more appropriate to bodybuilders than runners! For example, one of the studies used heavy weight training in the gym with the following exercises: hamstring curls, leg press, seated press, parallel squat, leg extensions and heel raises. Of these, only two of the exercises were weight bearing, and only one was a single leg exercise – the hamstring curl. Even then, the hamstring doesn’t function in the same manner when running (see below), so it’s hard to see how this type of training transfers effectively to runners.

Two of the other studies used circuit training as well as plyometric exercises. Here the plyometric exercises used single- and double-leg jumps, bounds and hops, which would have a transfer effect to running patterns. The circuit training may have improved running by increasing local muscular endurance, but circuit training has also recently been shown to improve sprint agility and anaerobic performance in non-runners, although it depends on the exercises that are done in the circuit(3).

The authors of the review concluded that RT does appear to be effective in influencing running economy and performance; however the actual methods used were very varied, so drawing conclusions from them would be very tenuous.

The importance of biarticular muscles

Biarticular muscles pass over more than one joint. These biarticular muscles have more complicated movement patterns than monoarticular muscles (that pass over only one joint) such as the gluteal muscles of the buttocks. They also use elastic strength rather than pure contractile strength in a great deal of the movement(4,5).

There are three main biarticular muscles in the lower limbs which are useful for running: the rectus femoris (frontal thigh), which passes over the front of the knee and hip; the hamstrings, which pass over the back of the knee and hip; and the gastrocnemius (calf), which passes over the ankle and knee. Biarticular muscles use energy efficiently because the counteractive force from one joint is released and used by the other joint. For example, when the hamstring contracts, knee flexion occurs, energy transfer is possible from the knee to the hip, which then helps extend the hip. This occurs very quickly and is difficult to measure – its importance has only recently started to be understood(1).

This combination of joint movements and energy transfer is important to understand when designing exercises to improve efficiency. If a gluteal muscle is contracted concentrically, the hip will extend. Training a gluteal muscle through strength training in almost any form will have a strong transfer to its use within sport, because it is a simple movement. However, the hamstrings are more difficult to train because of their biarticluar nature. The length of the muscle can be changed by either tilting the pelvis forward or back or by extending or flexing the knee. The nature of the contraction also changes depending on whether the hip or knee is fixed and which part of the running stance is being considered. So, the type of exercise to improve the hamstring function needs to be carefully considered. Simple hamstring curls should be avoided because that’s not how this muscle works during running.

What works for runners?

Trying to draw conclusions from research apart from ‘elite middle distance runners can benefit from RT’ is difficult. So perhaps we should look at how the body works best, and then create an exercise programme around that, rather than just doing gym exercises. This may include the following:

• Some form of plyometric activity to work ankle reactivity;
• Single leg strengthening exercises to improve balance and control in the gluteal area and the knee joint;
• Hamstring exercises that develop eccentric strength;

Some exercises that help develop the core complex around the pelvis that assists in minimising upper body rotation during running.

That exact choice will depend on the individual runner; for example, if a runner has had an injury, or is severely deconditioned then there is a place for general strengthening work in the form of circuit training to establish a sound platform. Jumping too quickly into specific work without an underlying strength base could lead to injury. If a runner has suffered a lower limb injury, the level of coordination will be decreased, so exercises need to be included that re-establish previous motor patterns. Examples of exercises that may be useful can be found below:

Ankle reactivity exercises

All the drills below can improve the foot and ankle’s reactivity to changing ground surfaces.

Ankle bounces: The concept behind this exercise to use your calves to propel you off the floor, with as little knee movement as possible. On two feet and keeping the legs almost straight, quickly pull up the toes and jump up off the floor. As you land quickly pull up your toes again and repeat.

Hopping on one leg: In this exercise, you should aim to cover a distance of 15m. The raised foot is used to touch the floor at every hop but with tension held in the foot. Variations on this exercise include:

• Making the raised leg perform a high knee action so it has to move rapidly up and down in between hops;
• Moving the raised leg up and down, but not allowing it to quite touch the floor;
• The raised leg alternately performs a high knee action with the foot touching the floor, followed by a high knee action where the foot doesn’t touch the floor.

NB: In all these exercises it is important to keep some tension in the foot – that means keeping it in a neutral position, not pointed up or down. It is also important to minimise the amount of contact time between the foot and the ground.

Leg and core exercises

Single leg strengthening exercises

Split squat: Carrying any weighted implement (barbell, dumbbells, sandbag), stand with one foot in front of the other, feet about shoulder width apart. Keep the weight and your shoulders above the hips and bend both knees, to lower the hips. Return to the start position.

One leg hip hitch: Stand with weight on shoulders, one foot on floor, the other resting on a small bench. Lift the foot off the bench and bring the knee up by lifting the hip, the stance leg should be fully extended through hip, knee and ankle and weight should be through the ball of the foot. Hold this position for one second and then return to the start.

A variation to the above is as follows: when the foot comes off the bench,  use it to tap the floor by the stance leg then as it returns to the bench, make the stance leg drive forcefully and quickly up until it is fully extended.

Step-ups: With weight on shoulders, stand in front of a small bench or platform that is lower than knee height. As you step up on to the bench with the right leg, drive up quickly with the left leg so it is fully extended. As you transfer weight onto the right leg, bring the left knee quickly forward and up until it is bent at 90 degrees. You are now stood on the bench on your right foot with the left leg bent and raised in front of your body. By varying the weight used, you can vary the speed of movement and change the emphasis of the exercise. Ensure that your head is upright and your back extended throughout.

Hamstring emphasis exercise

Split squat with forward bend: Start as above, but this time, when the thighs are nearly parallel to the ground, bend forward until the weight and shoulders are over the front knee. The weight shouldn’t be so heavy that you are unable to move the shoulders to the front.

Variation: stand with your back to a wall, feet about 50cm away from of the wall, holding a light weight on shoulders. Place one foot on wall behind you and bend forward, keeping your chest out and back extended. Do small bouncing movements under control. Keep the back muscles tense and the back straight throughout.

Core complex exercises

Slow sit up: Lie on the floor with hands behind head, knees bent and feet on floor. Sit up to about 45 degrees and then extend your back by sticking your chest out and pull elbows backwards. As you return to the floor, the back flexes and your elbows return to the front.
Variations on the these core exercises include the following:

• After sitting up, extend and raise both arms backwards  above and behind your head;
• After sitting up and extending your chest, rotate your upper body and point one elbow in front and the other behind.

Medicine ball slams: Hold a medicine ball above your head and reach up as high as you can. Slam it into the ground, catch it and repeat as rapidly as possible.

With all of the above exercises, ensure that you have no existing injuries before starting them. If in doubt on the weight to use, try a very light weight and progress from there. Aim to do five high quality repetitions of each, then rest, then repeat for up to four more sets. The exception is the medicine ball slams where a large number (up to 100) can be performed as a conditioning tool.

Conclusion

Research and anecdotal evidence shows that some form of resistance training is likely to improve your performance as a middle distance runner. However, the quality of the programmes within the research studies and the lack of suitable studies mean that conclusions are difficult to draw as to exactly what works best. However, once an initial strength base has been established, working on specific exercises twice a week for 20-30 minutes may well help improve running economy. During the off-season, this could be increased to three times a week for 45 minutes.

James Marshall MSc, CSCS, ACSM/HFI, runs Excelsior, a sports training company

References

1. F. Bosch & R. Klomp, Running: Biomechanics
and Exercise Physiology Applied in Practice.
Netherlands: Elsevier.
(2007)
2. JSCR, 22(6) p 2036-
2044, (2008)
3. JSCR, 23 (6) 1803-
1810, (2009)
4. Brain Research 751 p 239-246 (1997)
5. Journal of Biomechanics
27 (1) p25-34 (1994)

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Tags: ironman training, tri bike

Creatine (methylguanidine-acetic acid) was discovered in 1832, but athletes have been taking it – in hopes of improving their performances - for only the last 10 years. Over [...]]]> Creatine supplements can boost your endurance training without encouraging weight gain

The correct dose of creatine will improve endurance athletes performance without making them gain weight!

Creatine (methylguanidine-acetic acid) was discovered in 1832, but athletes have been taking it – in hopes of improving their performances - for only the last 10 years. Over that time period, a scientific consensus has emerged that creatine supplementation can indeed increase muscular strength and power and improve performances in relatively short-duration, high-intensity activities. The potential benefits of creatine supplementation for longer-duration, lower-intensity exertion (i. e., for endurance-type athletes) have, however, been hotly debated.

[MAM]

To get a better insight into this debate, you should understand that muscle cells use creatine to form creatine phosphate, a high-energy compound which can be used to rapidly synthesize ATP, the ‘energy currency’ utilized by all cells in the human body. Whenever a nerve cell fires, a muscle fibre contracts, or a kidney cell actively filters some urine, ATP ‘pays the bills’ (i. e., furnishes the energy needed to carry out the activity).

Creatine phosphate is also a ‘buffer’ which tempers the increase in intramuscular acidity associated with intense exercise; in this role, creatine might help allay the fatigue which can be caused by a drop in muscular pH. Because of these two key actions of creatine (ATP creator and buffer), athletes have become extremely interested in supplementing their diets with this unique compound.

There is no question that creatine supplementation increases the amount of creatine phosphate within muscle cells, sometimes by up to 50 per cent. Research support for creatine has been strong, and PP readers will be aware of a lot of it. Studies going as far back as 1986 have shown that when creatine phosphate concentrations drop within muscle cells, those fibres are unable to exhibit normal force production. In addition, a variety of different scientific investigations have linked creatine supplementation with greater muscular force production and power, as well as higher sprinting speeds, faster cycling velocities, and quicker swimming movements during very high-intensity efforts. As a result, there are few elite power athletes in the world who have not given creatine supplementation a try.

But what about endurance athletes?
In contrast, there’s no question that creatine is less popular with the endurance crowd, compared to the power people (one of creatine’s side effects – weight gain – has helped to minimize its popularity among endurance competitors). Somewhat surprisingly, little creatine research has been carried out with endurance athletes, and the few investigations which have been completed have yielded inconsistent results.

Thus, more work has been needed, and in a relatively new study, researchers at Kingston University in Surrey and the University of Tasmania in Australia looked at the effects of creatine on 16 endurance kayakers who possessed a high level of fitness (VO2max = 67.1 ml/kg.min). All 16 subjects took part in an initial workout which consisted of three work intervals which were completed on a kayak ergometer and which lasted for a duration of 90, 150, and 300 seconds. The athletes completed each interval at the highest-possible intensity and recovered completely (heart rate back to resting level) between intervals (‘The Effects of Creatine Supplementation on High-Intensity Exercise Performance in Elite Performers,’ European Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 78, pp. 236-240, 1998).

The subjects were then randomly assigned to either a ‘creatine group’ or a placebo group. Creatine-group members took four five-gram doses of creatine monohydrate per day for a total of five days, while placebo-group athletes ingested four five-gram supplements of glucose daily. After five days, both the creatine and glucose athletes repeated the three-interval, max-intensity workout.

There followed a four-week ‘washout period’, during which the subjects took neither the creatine nor the glucose supplements. Research has shown that four weeks is long enough to bring an elevated muscle creatine-phosphate concentration back to ‘normal’. Following the four-week washout, all subjects participated in the three-interval workout yet again. Following this re-test, the previous placebo subjects ingested creatine for five days (4 x 5 grams per day) while the former creatine athletes took the glucose placebo (this is what’s called a ‘crossover’ design). After five days, the athletes tried the three-interval session one last time.

Fatter – but stronger
In just five-days time, the creatine supplements made the athletes gain weight. Creatine supplementers gained on average two kilograms (4.4 pounds), or almost one pound per day during creatine supplementation. Meanwhile, the placebo-subjects’ weights held steady.

Creatine also increased the quality of the athletes’ efforts during the three-interval workouts. During the 90-second interval, the kayakers completed about 16 per cent more work when they had supplemented with creatine, compared to taking the placebo or being in the control condition (at the beginning of the study and after the washout period). During the 150-second interval, the athletes completed 14 per cent more work with creatine, and for the five-minute (300-second) interval the creatine subjects hit 7 per cent more work. Blood-lactate levels were also higher for creatine athletes after the 150- and 300-second intervals, compared to control and placebo subjects. However, this was not a bad thing; it merely reflects the fact that the creatine-supplemented athletes were able to work at a higher intensity (and thus ‘cough up’ a bit more lactate).

[MAM]

Note that the advantage associated with creatine supplementation became smaller as the duration of the work interval increased. This is not terribly surprising. As work-interval duration increases, the relative amount of the energy which is needed to complete the interval which is actually coming from creatine phosphate decreases, as the creation of ATP from the breakdown of carbohydrate (rather than from the transfer of a phosphate group from creatine phosphate) becomes much more important. As work-interval duration increases, exercise intensity also declines, which means that creatine phosphate’s role as a buffer becomes less important.

That doesn’t mean that the value of creatine supplements becomes negligible for the endurance athlete carrying out relatively long work intervals, however, because creatine supplementation did produce significant improvements in work output during the longest (five-minute) intervals utilized in this study. Thus, it is tempting to say that creatine supplementation would be very beneficial to endurance athletes during their training (150-second to five-minute intervals are commonly employed by endurance competitors).

Will it also be true for runners?
However, remember that the gains in this study associated with creatine supplementation were obtained by endurance kayakers, not runners. Endurance kayakers, of course, are seated during exercise, and therefore the gains in weight associated with taking creatine are not so troubling to them (the kayak and water – not the athletes’ working muscles – support most of the extra weight, and the only real drawback linked with weight gain is a slight uptick in drag, i. e., friction between the kayak and the water). The same is true for cyclists, but even one-pound gains can hurt the efficiency of runners; four-pound upswings will almost certainly slow them down.

What causes the gain in weight? Research indicates that most of the short-term weight gain associated with creatine supplementation is probably due to water retention. Eric Hultman and his outstanding team of researchers were able to show recently that as creatine storage by muscles increases, urinary volume tends to decline (‘Muscle Creatine Loading in Men,’ Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 81, pp. 232-237, 1996). Over the long term, much of the weight gain associated with creatine could be produced by an actual increase in muscular mass, as the higher-quality workouts linked to creatine supplementation could lead to advances in muscle size, at least among athletes who are strength training with rather heavy resistances.

The answer is yes – but
Should endurance runners take creatine supplements? There is little doubt that creatine supplementation can improve the quality of endurance-runners’ workouts. Several years ago, scientists from England and Estonia asked five endurance runners at Tartu University in Estonia to supplement their diets with 30 grams (six five-gram doses per day) of creatine monohydrate per day for six consecutive days. During this six-day period, five other Estonian runners of comparable ability consumed a glucose placebo instead of creatine. All runners were unaware of the true compositions of their supplements (‘Creatine Propels British Athletes to Olympic Gold Medals: Is Creatine the One True Ergogenic Aid?’ Running Research News, vol. 9(1), pp. 1-5, 1993).

Prior to and following the six days of supplementation, the athletes ran four 300-metre and (on a separate day) four 1000-metre intervals, with three minutes of rest between the 300-metre work intervals and four minutes of recovery after the 1000-metre reps. Creatine dramatically improved the runners’ efforts. Compared to the placebo group, improvement in the final 300-metre interval (from pre- to post-supplementation) was more than twice as great for creatine users, and improvement was more than three times as great for creatine supplementers in the final 1000-metre interval. Total time required to run all four 1000-metre intervals improved from 770 to 757 seconds after creatine supplementation, a statistically significant change. Meanwhile, placebo-group members’ performances remained the same (about 775 seconds for the four intervals). Creatine supplementation improved the average quality of the 1000-metre intervals by a little over three seconds.

Of course, improvements in workout quality generally lead to improvements in competitive performances. Amazingly enough, workout-quality upgrades can occur after just five to six days of creatine supplementation. This all makes creatine sound wonderful, but there’s still that nagging problem of weight gain.

Will you always gain weight?
However, bear in mind that the water-retention-related gain in weight is primarily a function of the high creatine-loading doses (20 to 30 grams per day) used both in many research studies and by many athletes. In a very recent study, a lower loading dose (6g of creatine per day) produced only a one-pound gain in weight (‘Why Your Creatine Consumption Is Costing You Too Much,’ Running Research News, vol. 14(7), pp. 1-4, 1998).

And in fact researchers are finding that lower loading doses can be as effective as the big, 20-gram per day intakes at building up muscle creatine-phosphate concentrations, provided that the lower doses are taken over a little bit more time. Basically, the new research is revealing that six one-half gram doses of creatine per day (for a total of three grams daily) over the course of about 30 days will build muscle-creatine concentrations to a level comparable to that achieved with the whopping 20-gram ingestions. Very importantly, these three-gram per day intakes appear to be associated with very little water retention and weight gain.

Thus, it appears that creatine monohydrate can be a performance-boosting (and legal) supplement for endurance runners. The best way to take it is to simply sprinkle about a half-gram of the stuff on some food (and then of course eat the creatine and comestible) six times per day. Little creatine will be lost in the urine and faeces, creating a very economical intake pattern, little weight will be gained, and the resulting heightened intramuscular creatine-phosphate concentration should have a direct, positive impact on the quality of your high-intensity training sessions. Since intensity is the most potent producer of running fitness, your creatine-boosted sessions should eventually lead to some very nice PBs.

Bear in mind that there’s no need for you to buy ‘special’ creatine. ‘Micronized’ creatine and any commercial creatine product which supposedly can be absorbed more readily offers no special advantages; in fact, as the rate of creatine absorption increases, the urinary losses of creatine become greater.

Jim Bledsoe

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Tags: duathlon, triathlons

ELEVEN represents 11global’s exciting long-term mission to provide an annual international Olympic-distance triathlon series that will culminate in age-group and relay team champions. 11global owner, Ryan Landy explains, “We strive to recalibrate the Olympic-distance experience [...]]]> September 21, 2010 – ironguides concluded a deal this past week to become the official coaching partner to the ELEVEN triathlon series.

ELEVEN represents 11global’s exciting long-term mission to provide an annual international Olympic-distance triathlon series that will culminate in age-group and relay team champions. 11global owner, Ryan Landy explains, “We strive to recalibrate the Olympic-distance experience and have carefully designed and planned each race. Locations with superb landscape and environmental conditions have been selected to deliver the ultimate racing experience”.

“As a global company, it made sense for us to partner with ironguides” continues Landy. “ironguides is a renowned international coaching company and their athlete’s results each year speak for themselves. This way athletes wishing to compete at any of our events now have the chance to be fully prepared by purchasing one of their pre packaged programmes or go for the ultimate experience and be coached by one of their highly qualified registered coaches, be it online or in person”.

Speaking to ironguides owner and Head Coach Vinnie Santana, he said “One of our company slogans is ‘Your best is Our business’. At ironguides, we resist the ordinary approach to help our athletes live extraordinary lives! To us, our clients’ participation in a multisport event must be the most enjoyable experience possible”.

Beginning with ELEVEN Sun City on November 7, 2010 athletes will be able to attend a workshop run by ironguides. Details of these workshops will be made available to each athlete once they have registered for their chosen event. For more information on ironguides coaching services, visit www.ironguides.net. For more information on 11global, visit www.11global.com.

About ironguides:

ironguides is the leading Lifestyle Facilitation company for endurance athletes of all abilities. ironguides provides coaching and training services, plans and programs, as well training education, and health and fitness products to help you thrive in your active lifestyle.

Get fit with one of our monthly training subscriptions, event-specific training plans, coaching services, a Tour de France bike tour or a triathlon training camp in fantastic locations! ironguides also provides Corporate Health services including Corporate Triathlons, Healthy Living retreats and seminars. At ironguides, your best is our business! For more information, visit: www.ironguides.net

About 11global:

11global has embedded its passion for triathlon and the Olympic-distance into ELEVEN – the first international triathlon series geared towards the amateur triathlete. Following its first triathlon in 2008 ELEVEN is now four triathlons strong in three countries (South Africa, USA and UAE) with two additional locations set for 2011.

Striving to recalibrate the Olympic-distance experience each race is carefully designed and planned. Locations with superb landscape and environmental conditions have been selected to deliver the ultimate racing experience.

ELEVEN – Come Prepared!

Contact Information:

Ryan Landy, Race Director

ELEVEN

ryan@11global.com

Vinnie Santana, Head Coach

ironguides
vinnie@ironguides.net

Tags: wetsuit, half ironman

You can never be pregnant. You can wear a white T-shirt to a water park. You can wear [...]]]> Men Are Just Happier People – What do you expect from such simple creatures? Your last name stays put. The garage is all yours. Wedding plans take care of themselves. Chocolate is just another snack. You can be President.

You can never be pregnant. You can wear a white T-shirt to a water park. You can wear NO shirt to a water park. Car mechanics tell you the truth. The world is your urinal. You never have to drive to another gas station restroom because this one is just too icky.

You don’t have to stop and think of which way to turn a nut on a bolt. Same work, more pay. Wrinkles add character. Wedding dress R 5000. Tux rental R 500. People never stare at your chest when you’re talking to them. New shoes don’t cut, blister, or mangle your feet. One mood all the time!

Phone conversations are over in 30 seconds flat. You know stuff about tanks.. A five-day vacation requires only one suitcase. You can open all your own jars. You get extra credit for the slightest act of thoughtfulness. If someone forgets to invite you, he or she can still be your friend.

Your underwear is R 30.00 for a three-pack. Three pairs of shoes are more than enough. You almost never have strap problems in public. You are unable to see wrinkles in your clothes. Everything on your face stays its original color. The same hairstyle lasts for years, maybe decades. You only have to shave your face and neck.

You can play with toys all your life. One wallet and one pair of shoes — one color for all seasons. You can wear shorts no matter how your legs look. You can “do” your nails with a pocket knife. You have freedom of choice concerning growing a mustache.

You can do Christmas shopping for 25 relatives on December 24 in 25 minutes.

No wonder men are happier.

Tags: open water swimming, triathlon wetsuits

You’d think that when it comes to technique, cycling is a delightfully simple sport. But over [...]]]> A very interesting article that sheds new light on what is considered correct cycle pedalling technique, and shakes up some well established dogmas giving us plenty of good food for thought… Mike

How to increase cycling efficiency to improve competition performance

You’d think that when it comes to technique, cycling is a delightfully simple sport. But over the years, a number of theories have been advanced about the best way for cyclists to pedal and maximise their pedalling efficiency. Joe Beer looks at the evidence and tries to separate fact from fiction.

From a clinical perspective, the bicycle holds the moving limbs of the lower body in a fixed arc; you have your foot in a rigid shoe, fixed to the pedal with a shoe cleat, which essentially attaches your foot to the end of a crank arm. When spinning the cranks (pedalling), this ‘closed circuit’ provides a fairly predetermined movement pattern, which allows for very little personal flair or style.

In effect, when studying the movement patterns during pedalling, all cyclists’ legs look fairly similar to one another, regardless of the level of exertion, the terrain, or whether the rider is in or out of the saddle. This is in marked contrast to the huge variations that can be seen in runners’ leg gait or freestyle swimmers’ arm movement patterns. The key question, therefore, is whether and how can you become better at pedalling?

Foot action

There are many ways that riders have attempted to improve cycling efficiency (the amount of power produced for a given level of oxygen consumption), most notably trying to pedal in a way that accentuates the upward lift of the foot, and varying the pitch of the ankle in various ways. The exact method, terminology and descriptions of this technique depend on whose interpretation you read. Suffice to say there is no evidence that these methods produce any significant improvements in efficiency over the normal, simple method of simply concentrating on the ‘press-down’ phase of each pedal revolution(1). The best riders push down harder than the slower riders and therefore go faster – it’s as simple as that!

Rule #1: push the pedals and don’t over-analyse any special foot action

Copying the pros

It’s hard to know whether pro riders are fit, good at pedalling efficiently or fit and good at pedalling efficiently! Few studies have properly tracked the career of elite cyclists so if there are any changes in economy over time, the data to support this notion are virtually non-existent.

However, there is a famous paper, on a certain Lance Armstrong, which suggests the measured gains in efficiency in his early years (see box 1) were due to changes to the muscle structure as a result of training and maturity(2). However, this data has been challenged by some researchers(3,4). They have suggested that the time periods examined don’t show year-on-year comparisons, that VO2max and body mass changes were more significant than riding economy and, most importantly, that fundamental problems in data collection make the data impossible to compare over a seven-year period. Granted, the data presented by Coyle(2) show improvements in Armstrong’s fitness; however, this improved efficiency may have been an indirect observation rather than the actual cause of his subsequent success.

Likewise, a study using 69 cyclists from recreational to world-class level suggests that there are not significant differences in cycling economy between such widely varying subjects(5). So rather than their superb pedalling efficiency, the key to being a top dog cycling pro may instead be the maximum power, aerobic fuel efficiency, tactical awareness and fatigue resistance.

Rule #2: your potential maximum riding economy is likely already innately fixed. However, lower body fat levels and bike weight, increased strength and power, better tactics and correct sports nutrition can all make you a much better rider.

Fitness first

A common assumption is that elite riders must share similar traits in order to get to the top. One of these assumptions is that elite riders must be efficient because they ride huge distances every year (circa 25,000-45,000km). However, this is debatable. Data from professional teams has shown that across a batch of 12 world class riders cycling at around 400 watts (around 5 watts per kilo of body weight) gross efficiency can vary from 20.9 to 28% – in other words average to super-human efficiency(7). This is a huge variation considering these riders had all shone at elite level and all ridden massive distances.

Interestingly, data presented by the Spanish team that did the research actually suggests that those with a lower maximum aerobic capacity (VO2max) can adapt and make up for such shortcomings with increased riding efficiency(7). Interestingly, this phenomenon (of modest VO2max but superior efficiency) has also been hinted at by some researchers from the field of running biomechanics.

Higher cadence?

Many people have examined Lance Armstrong’s riding ability and (mistakenly) deduced that for all riders, the best way to pedal well is to spin the cranks at 95-100rpm. However, lets make a couple of things crystal clear:

1. The higher cadences used by professional riders is because they are producing as much as 400-500 watts in time-trial efforts or climbs of 20 to 60 minutes;

2. Recovery from day-to-day ‘tour’ riding is easier with higher cadence riding, so riders chose this as a matter of energy conservation(8). So while Lance may ride a time trial at close on 100rpm, he is sustaining over 450 watts. Lesser mortals can probably only sustain around 250-350 watts, so cadence can be significantly lower – say around 75-85rpm. This is especially so when climbing where many cyclists can find improved efficiency (and ability to climb) at around 70rpm.

Macintosh and his co-workers have shown that optimal cadence for 100, 200, 300 and 400w cycling occurs at 57, 70, 86 and 99rpm respectively(9). This casts some doubt on the age-old advice that cyclists should aim for 95rpm because ‘that’s what the pros do’. Sadly though, we don’t all generate 400 watts in time trial and fast climb efforts! In fact, in a review of studies in this area, scientists concluded that ‘the choice of a relatively high cadence during cycling at low to moderate intensity is uneconomical and could compromise performance during prolonged cycling’(10).

Rule #3: choose a cadence that mirrors your power output; slower riding and warm ups should use a lower cadence while high-effort time trials should use a higher cadence. Unless you’re an elite rider, it’s unlikely you’ll benefit from using cadences exceeding around 85rpm

Five things NOT to do to increase efficiency!

1. Focus on lots of turbo trainer drills – it’s unlikely to help efficiency. Instead use rollers for balance, coordination and a smoother pedal action;
2. Place a lot of emphasis on high intensity intervals in spin classes – there’s no proof this helps. A fixed wheel bike on the road or lower intensity coordination spin-bike riding will likely be more productive;
3. Buy independent ‘Powercranks’ (where left and right cranks can spin independently of each other) These have been tested and have shown no benefits(6);
4. Significantly cut down on carbohydrates or restrict feeding on longer rides to force your body to adapt and become more efficient. This is just likely to cause illness and burnout;
5. Do excessive high cadence (speed of pedal rotation) riding in an attempt to be able to spin at 110 or even 120rpm. Unless you can match this up to a 400-450 watt sustained efforts or greater you are just making yourself great at pressing down on air, not forcing the pedals downwards!

Four ways to get more efficient

1. Ride rollers: these consist of a simple three-barrel device, which is becoming increasingly overlooked now widescreen training systems can be connected to an indoor trainer. However, efficient track cyclists, time trialists and cyclo-cross riders use rollers as part of their efficient riding programme. Short-term observations suggest the smooth pedal style that balancing on such an unforgiving surface gives can equate to 1-2% improvement in efficiency measures.
2. Ride more: though we don’t have a direct mileage verses efficiency table to prove more miles means better efficiency, good riders do ride their bike several times per week. A minimum level of riding must be adhered to (like any skill). Varying the cadences used, the type of bike (fixed wheel, night riding, off-road mountain bike, etc) and developing handling all helps to eke out a more efficient rider/bike partnership.
3. Use non-circular chain rings (like the Cervelo test team!). The variable circumference Q-Ring front chain rings can give improved pedal efficiency(11). By increasing the resistance on the down-stroke and easing up across the bottom and top of the pedal stroke, non-circular rings can make pedalling easier without having to think about a new pedalling style, especially when climbing.
4. Vary cadence deliberately, from very low cadence hills (eg 50rpm in a big gear with smooth, controlled pressure) up to fast spinning brief eight-second sprints to ignite lots of muscle fibres. There’s more than one cadence sweet spot or one speed of riding. By keeping it varied, the nervous system, muscles and energy systems have to adapt.

References

1 Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39(6):991-995.
2. J. Appl. Physiol 2005; 98:2191-2196
3. J. Appl. Physiol 2005; 99: 1630-1631
4. J Appl Physiol 2005; 99: 1628-1629
5. Int J Sports Med 2004; 25(5): 374-379
6. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009; 4: 18-28
7. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34(12):2079-2084
8. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33(8): 1361-1366
9. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32(7): 1281-1287
10. Int J. Sp. Phys Perf 2009; 4: 3-17
11. J Physiol Anthropol. 2009; 28(6):261-7

Joe Beer is an endurance coach working with triathletes, duathletes, sportive riders and time-trialists through his company JBST.com. He is also the author of ‘Need to Know Triathlon’ (Harper Collins)

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Tags: triathlon results, triathlon swimming

Fat burning is a very popular and often-used term among endurance athletes. But is it really important to burn fat – and, if so, how can it best be achieved? Asker [...]]]> In this article the fat burning processes are well explained and the latest scientific research dispels many popular myths. Mike

Fat oxidation through intense exercise

Fat burning is a very popular and often-used term among endurance athletes. But is it really important to burn fat – and, if so, how can it best be achieved? Asker Jeukendrup looks at the latest research

The term ‘fat burning’ refers to the ability to oxidise (or burn) fat, and thus to use fat – instead of carbohydrate – as a fuel. Fat burning is often associated with weight loss, decreases in body fat and increases in lean body mass, all of which can be advantageous for an athlete.

It is known that well-trained endurance athletes have an increased capacity to oxidise fatty acids. This enables them to use fat as a fuel when their carbohydrate stores become limited. In contrast, patients with obesity, insulin resistance and type II diabetes may have an impaired capacity to oxidise fat. As a result, fatty acids may be stored in their muscles and in other tissues. This accumulation of lipid and its metabolites in the muscle may interfere with the insulin-signalling cascade and cause insulin resistance. It is therefore important to understand the factors that regulate fat metabolism, and the ways to increase fat oxidation in patients and athletes.

Fat oxidation during exercise

Fats are stored mostly in (subcutaneous) adipose tissue, but we also have small stores in the muscle itself (intramuscular triglycerides). At the onset of exercise, neuronal (beta-adrenergic) stimulation will increase lipolysis (the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol) in adipose tissue and muscle. Catecholamines such as adrenaline and noradrenaline may also rise and contribute to the stimulation of lipolysis.

As soon as exercise begins, fatty acids are mobilised. Adipose tissue fatty acids have to be transported from the fat cell to the muscle, be transported across the muscle membrane and then be transported across the mitochondrial membrane for oxidation. The triglycerides stored in muscle undergo similar lipolysis and these fatty acids can be transported into the mitochondria as well. During exercise, a mixture of fatty acids derived from adipocytes and intramuscular stores is used. There is evidence that shows that trained individuals store more intramuscular fat and use this more as a source of energy during exercise (1).

Fat oxidation is regulated at various steps of this process. Lipolysis is affected by many factors but is mostly regulated by hormones (stimulated by catecholamines and inhibited by insulin). The transport of fatty acids is also dependent on blood supply to the adipose and muscle tissues, as well as the uptake of fatty acids into the muscle and into the mitochondria. By inhibiting mobilisation of fatty acids or the transport of these fatty acids, we can reduce fat metabolism. However, are there also ways in which we can stimulate these steps
and promote fat metabolism?

Factors affecting fat oxidation

Exercise intensity – One of the most important factors that determines the rate of fat oxidation during exercise is the intensity. Although several studies have described the relationship between exercise intensity and fat oxidation, only recently was this relationship studied over a wide range of intensities(2). In absolute terms, carbohydrate oxidation increases proportionally with exercise intensity, whereas the rate of fat oxidation initially increases, but decreases again at higher exercise intensities (see figure 1). So, although it is often claimed that you have to exercise at low intensities to oxidise fat, this is not necessarily true.

In a series of recent studies, we have defined the exercise intensity at which maximal fat oxidation is observed, called ‘Fatmax’. In a group of trained individuals it was found that exercise at moderate intensity (62-63% of VO2max or 70-75% of HRmax) was the optimal intensity for fat oxidation, whereas it was around 50% of VO2max for less trained individuals (2,3).

However, the inter-individual variation is very large. A trained person may have his or her maximal fat oxidation at 70%VO2max or 45%VO2max, and the only way to really find out is to perform one of these Fatmax tests in the laboratory. However, in reality, the exact intensity at which fat oxidation peaks may not be that important, because within 5-10% of this intensity (or 10-15 beats per minute), fat oxidation will be similarly high, and only when the intensity is 20% or so higher will fat oxidation drop rapidly (see figure 1).

This exercise intensity (Fatmax) or ‘zone’ may have importance for weight-loss programmes, health-related exercise programmes, and endurance training. However, very little research has been done. Recently we used this intensity in a training study with obese individuals. Compared with interval training, their fat oxidation (and insulin sensitivity) improved more after four weeks steady-state exercise (three times per week) at an intensity that equalled their individual Fatmax (4).

Dietary effects – The other important factor is diet. A diet high in carbohydrate will suppress fat oxidation, and a diet low in carbohydrate will result in high fat oxidation rates. Ingesting carbohydrate in the hours before exercise will raise insulin and subsequently suppress fat oxidation by up to 35%(5) or thereabouts. This effect of insulin on fat oxidation may last as long as six to eight hours after a meal, and this means that the highest fat oxidation rates can be achieved after an overnight fast.

Endurance athletes have often used exercise without breakfast as a way to increase the fat-oxidative capacity of the muscle. Recently, a study was performed at the University of Leuven in Belgium, in which scientists investigated the effect of a six-week endurance training programme carried out for three days per week, each session lasting one to two hours(6). The participants trained in either the fasted or carbohydrate-fed state.

When training was conducted in the fasted state, the researchers observed a decrease in muscle glycogen use, while the activity of various proteins involved in fat metabolism was increased. However, fat oxidation during exercise was the same in the two groups. It is possible, though, that there are small but significant changes in fat metabolism after fasted training; but, in this study, changes in fat oxidation might have been masked by the fact that these subjects received carbohydrate during their experimental trials. It must also be noted that training after an overnight fast may reduce your exercise capacity and may therefore only be suitable for low- to moderate- intensity exercise sessions. The efficacy of such training for weight reduction is also not known.

Duration of exercise – It has long been established that oxidation becomes increasingly important as exercise progresses. During ultra-endurance exercise, fat oxidation can reach peaks of 1 gram per minute, although (as noted in Dietary effects)fat oxidation may be reduced if carbohydrate is ingested before or during exercise. In terms of weight loss, the duration of exercise may be one of the key factors as it is also the most effective way to increase energy expenditure.

Mode of exercise – The exercise modality also has an effect on fat oxidation. Fat oxidation has been shown to be higher for a given oxygen uptake during walking and running, compared with cycling(7). The reason for this is not known, but it has been suggested that it is related to the greater power output per muscle fibre in cycling compared to that in running.

Gender differences – Although some studies in the literature have found no gender differences in metabolism, the majority of studies now indicate higher rates of fat oxidation in women. In a study that compared 150 men and 150 women over a wide range of exercise intensities, it was shown that the women had higher rates of fat oxidation over the entire range of intensities, and that their fat oxidation peaked at a slightly higher intensity(8). The differences, however, are small and may not be of any physiological significance.

Nutrition supplements

There are many nutrition supplements on the market that claim to increase fat oxidation. These supplements include caffeine, carnitine, hydroxycitric acid (HCA), chromium, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), guarana, citrus aurantium, Asian ginseng, cayenne pepper, coleus forskholii, glucomannan, green tea, psyllium and pyruvate. With few exceptions, there is little evidence that these supplements, which are marketed as fat burners, actually increase fat oxidation during exercise (see table 1).

One of the few exceptions however may be green tea extracts. We recently found that green tea extracts increased fat oxidation during exercise by about 20%(4). The mechanisms of this are not well understood but it is likely that the active ingredient in green tea, called epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG – a powerful polyphenol with antioxidant properties) inhibits the enzyme catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT), which is responsible for the breakdown of noradrenaline. This in turn may result in higher concentrations of noradrenaline and stimulation of lipolysis, making more fatty acids available for oxidation.

Environment – Environmental conditions can also influence the type of fuel used. It is known that exercise in a hot environment will increase glycogen use and reduce fat oxidation, and something similar can be observed at high altitude. Similarly, when it is extremely cold, and especially when shivering, carbohydrate metabolism appears to be stimulated at the expense of fat metabolism.

Exercise training

At present, the only proven way to increase fat oxidation during exercise is to perform regular physical activity. Exercise training will up-regulate the enzymes of the fat oxidation pathways, increase mitochondrial mass, increase blood flow, etc., all of which will enable higher rates of fat oxidation.

Research has shown that as little as four weeks of regular exercise (three times per week for 30-60 minutes) can increase fat oxidation rates and cause favourable enzymatic changes(10). However, too little information is available to draw any conclusions about the optimal training programme to achieve these effects.

In one study we investigated maximal rates of fat oxidation in 300 subjects with varying fitness levels. In this study, we had obese and sedentary individuals, as well as professional cyclists (9). VO2max ranged from 20.9 to 82.4ml/kg/min. Interestingly, although there was a correlation between maximal fat oxidation and maximal oxygen uptake, at an individual level, fitness cannot be used to predict fat oxidation. What this means is that there are some obese individuals that have similar fat oxidation rates to professional cyclists (see figure 2)! The large inter-individual variation is related to factors such as diet and gender, but remains in large part unexplained.

Weight loss exercise programmes

Fat burning is often associated with weight loss, decreases in body fat and increases in lean body mass. However, it must be noted that such changes in body weight and body composition can only be achieved with a negative energy balance: you have to eat fewer calories than you expend, independent of the fuels you use! The optimal exercise type, intensity, and duration for weight loss are still unclear. Current recommendations are mostly focused on increasing energy expenditure and increasing exercise volumes. Finding the optimal intensity for fat oxidation might aid in losing weight (fat loss) and in weight maintenance, but evidence for this is currently lacking.
It is also important to realise that the amount

of fat oxidised during exercise is only small. Fat oxidation rates are on average 0.5 grams per min at the optimal exercise intensity. So in order to oxidise 1kg of fat mass, more than 33 hours of exercise is required! Walking or running exercise around 50-65% of VO2max seems to be an optimal intensity to oxidise fat. The duration of exercise, however, plays a crucial role, with an increasing importance of fat oxidation with longer exercise. Of course, this also has the potential to increase daily energy expenditure. If exercise is the only intervention used, the main goal is usually to increase energy expenditure and reduce body fat. When combined with a diet programme, however, it is mainly used to counteract the decrease in fat oxidation often seen after weight loss (11).

Summary

Higher fat oxidation rates during exercise are generally reflective of good training status, whereas low fat oxidation rates might be related to obesity and insulin resistance. On average, fat oxidation peaks at moderate intensities of 50-65%VO2max, depending on the training status of the individuals(2,8), increases with increasing exercise duration, but is suppressed by carbohydrate intake. The vast majority of nutrition supplements do not have the desired effects. Currently, the only highly effective way to increase fat oxidation is through exercise training, although it is still unclear what the best training regimen is to get the largest improvements. Finally, it is important to note that there is a very large inter-individual variation in fat oxidation that is only partly explained by the factors mentioned above. This means that although the factors mentioned above can influence fat oxidation, they cannot predict fat oxidation rates in an individual.

Asker Jeukendrup is professor of exercise metabolism at the University of Birmingham. He has published more than 150 research papers and books on exercise metabolism and nutrition and is also consultant to many elite athletes

References
1. J Appl Physiol 60: 562-567, 1986
2. Int J Sports Med 24: 603-608, 2003
3. Int J Sports Med 26 Suppl 1: S28-37, 2005
4. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 778-784, 2008
5. J Sports Sci 21: 1017-1024, 2003
6. J Appl Physiol 104: 1045-1055, 2008
7. Metabolism 52: 747-752, 2003
8. J Appl Physiol 98: 160-167, 2005
9. Nutrition 20: 678-688, 2004
10. J Appl Physiol 56: 831-838, 1984
11. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 17 Suppl 3: S32-36; discussion S41-32, 1993

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Tags: triathlon wetsuits, duathlon